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playmates, or the social and economic life- have different consequences for development circumstances into which s/he is born. in different people. The ecological Research has shown that children in environment can change or alter during any impoverished environments have time of the individual’s life-span. Therefore, unstimulating environment devoid of books, to understand differences in the functioning magazines, toys, etc., lack experiences such of an individual, it is important to see the as visits to library, museum, zoo, etc., have parents who are ineffective as role models, and individual in the context of her/his experiences. live in overcrowded and noisy surroundings. As a result of these conditions children are at Activity 3.1 a disadvantage and have difficulties in learning. Durganand Sinha (1977) has presented an What would your life be if you lived in a rural area or a small town, devoid of all amenities, ecological model for understanding the which you are used to in a city (or vice-versa)? development of children in Indian context. Discuss in small groups keeping in mind factors Ecology of the child could be viewed in terms like poverty, illiteracy, pollution, population, etc. of two concentric layers. The “upper and the more visible layers” consist of home, school, peer groups, and so on. The most important O VERVIEW OF D EVELOPMENTAL STAGES ecological factors influencing development of the child in the visible upper layer constitute Development is commonly described in terms the: (i) home, its conditions in terms of of periods or stages. You must have observed overcrowding, space available to each member, that your younger brother or sister, or parents, toys, technological devices used, etc., and even yourself, all behave in different ways. (ii) nature and quality of schooling, facilitiesIf you observe people living in your to which the child is exposed, and (iii) nature neighbourhood, you would find that they too of interactions and activities undertaken with do not behave in a similar manner. This peer groups from childhood onwards. variation is partly because everyone is in a These factors do not operate different stage of life. Human life proceeds independently but constantly interact with through different stages. For example, you are one another. Since these are also embedded at present in the stage of adolescence and after in a larger and a more pervasive setting, the a few years you will enter the stage of adulthood. Developmental stages are assumed “surrounding layers” of the child’s ecology to be temporary and are often characterised constantly influence the “upper layer” factors. However, their influences are not by a dominant feature or a leading always clearly visible. The elements of the characteristic, which gives each period its uniqueness. During a particular stage, surrounding layer of ecology constitute the: individual progresses towards an assumed (i) general geographical environment. It goal - a state or ability that s/he must achieve includes space and facilities for play and other activities available outside the home in the same order as other persons before progressing to the next stage in the sequence. including general congestion of the locality Of course, individuals do vary with respect to and density of population, (ii) institutional the time or rate of development from one stage setting provided by caste, class, and other to another. It may be noted that certain factors, and (iii) general amenities available patterns of behaviour and certain skills are to the child like drinking water, electricity, learned more easily and successfully during means of entertainment and so on. certain stages. These accomplishments of a The visible and the surrounding layer person become the social expectations of that factors interact with one another and may stage of development. They are known as 45 Chapter 3 • Human Development Reprint 2026-27