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lesserandlessertimetopresstheleverforfood. response. They include its types – positive or Conditioning is complete when the rat presses negative, number or frequency, quality – the lever immediately after it is placed in the superior or inferior, and schedule– continuous chamber. It is obvious that lever pressing is or intermittent (partial). All these features an operant response and getting food is its influence the course of operant conditioning. consequence. Another factor that influences this type of learning is the nature of the response or behaviour that is to be conditioned. The interval or length of time that lapses between occurrence of response and reinforcement also influences operant learning. Let us examine some of these factors in detail. Types of Reinforcement Reinforcement may be positive or negative. Positive reinforcement involves stimuli that have pleasant consequences. They strengthen and maintain the responses that have caused them to occur. Positive reinforcers satisfy Fig.5.2 : Skinner Box needs, which include food, water, medals, praise, money, status, information, etc. In the above situation the response is instrumental in getting the food. That is why, Negative reinforcers involve unpleasant and this type of learning is also called painful stimuli.Responsesthatleadorganisms instrumental conditioning. Examples of to get rid of painful stimuli or avoid and escape instrumental conditioning abound in our from them provide negative reinforcement. Thus, negative reinforcement leads to learning everyday life. Children who want to have some of avoidance and escape responses. For sweets in the absence of their mother learn to locate the jar in which mother hides the sweets instance, one learns to put on woollen clothes, for safekeeping and eat it. Children learn to burn firewood or use electric heaters to avoid be polite and say ‘please’ to get favours from the unpleasant cold weather. One learns to move away from dangerous stimuli because their parents and others. One learns to operate they provide negative reinforcement. It may mechanical gadgets such as radio, camera, T.V., etc. based on the principle of be noted that negative reinforcement is not instrumental conditioning. As a matter of fact punishment. Use of punishment reduces or human beings learn short cuts to attain suppresses the response while a negative reinforcer increases the probability of desired goals or ends through instrumental avoidance or escape response. For instance, conditioning. drivers and co-drivers wear their seat belts to Determinants of Operant Conditioning avoid getting injured in case of an accident or to avoid being fined by the traffic police. You have noted that operant or instrumental It should be understood that no conditioning is a form of learning in which punishment suppresses a response behaviour is learned, maintained or changed permanently. Mild and delayed punishment through its consequences. Such consequences has no effect. The stronger the punishment, are called reinforcers. A reinforcer is defined the more lasting is the suppression effect but as any stimulus or event, which increases the it is not permanent. probability of the occurrence of a (desired) Sometimes punishment has no effect response. A reinforcer has numerous features, irrespective of its intensity. On the contrary, which affect the course and strength of a the punished person may develop dislike and 82 Psychology Reprint 2026-27