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visual, auditory, tactual, and kinesthetic appropriate techniques for correcting most misperception. They fail to differentiate a of the symptoms related to learning call-bell from the ring of the telephone. It disabilities. is not that they do not have sensory acuity. They simply fail to use it in performance. Key Terms 8. Fairly large number of learning-disabled children have dyslexia. They quite often Associative learning, Biofeedback, Cognitive fail to copy letters and words; for example, map, Conditioned response, Conditioned they fail to distinguish between b and d, stimulus, Conditioning, Discrimination, p and q, P and 9, was and saw, unclear Dyslexia, Extinction, Free recall, Generalisation, Insight, Learning disabilities, andnuclear,etc.Theyfailtoorganiseverbal Mental set, Modeling, Negative reinforcement, materials. Operant or instrumental conditioning, It must be noted that learning disabilities are not incurable. Remedial Positive reinforcement, Punishment, Reinforcement, Serial learning, Spontaneous teaching methods go a long way in helping recovery, Unconditioned response, them to learn and become like other students. Unconditioned stimulus, Verbal learning Educational psychologists have developed Summary • Learning is any relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioural potential produced by experience or practice. It is an inferred process and differs from performance which is the observed behaviour/response/action. • The main types of learning are: classical and operant conditioning, observational learning, cognitive learning, verbal learning, and skill learning. • Pavlov first investigated classical conditioning in the course of studies on digestion in dogs. In this kind of learning an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus (CS) that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response (CR) that anticipates and prepares the organism for US. • Skinner first investigated operant or instrumental conditioning (OC). An operant is any response voluntarily emitted by an organism. OC is a type of learning in which response is strengthened if followed by reinforcement. A reinforcer can be any event that increases the frequency of preceding response. Thus, the consequence of a response is crucial. The rate of OC is influenced by the type, number, schedule, and delay of reinforcement. • Observational learning is also known as imitation, modeling and social learning. We acquire knowledge by observing a model’s behaviour. The performance depends on whether the model’s behaviour is rewarded or punished. • In verbal learning words get associated with one another on the basis of structural, phonetic, and semantic similarity and contrast. They are often organised in clusters. In experimental studies, paired-associates learning, serial learning, and free recall methods are used. Meaningfulness of material, and subjective organisation influence learning. It may be incidental also. • Skill refers to the ability to carry out complex tasks smoothly and efficiently. They are learned by practice and exercise. The skilled performance is the organisation of S-R chain into large response patterns. It passes through cognitive, associative, and autonomous phases. • Factors facilitating learning include motivation and preparedness of the organism. • Learning disabilities (e.g., reading, writing) restrict learning in people. They are hyperactive, lack sense of time, and eye-hand coordination, etc. 93 Chapter 5 • Learning Reprint 2026-27