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processing approaches emphasise independent of the others. These primary studying cognitive functions underlying abilities are: (i) Verbal Comprehension intelligent behaviour. We will discuss (grasping meaning of words, concepts, and some representative theories of these ideas), (ii) Numerical Abilities (speed and approaches. accuracy in numerical and computational We mentioned above that Alfred Binet skills), (iii) Spatial Relations (visualising was the first psychologist who tried to patterns and forms), (iv) Perceptual Speed formalise the concept of intelligence in (speed in perceiving details), (v) Word terms of mental operations. Prior to him, Fluency (using words fluently and flexibly), we find the notion of intelligence described (vi) Memory (accuracy in recalling in general ways in various philosophical information), and (vii) Inductive Reasoning treatises available in different cultural (deriving general rules from presented traditions. Binet’s theory of intelligence facts). was rather simple as it arose from his Arthur Jensen proposed a hierarchical interest in differentiating more intelligent model of intelligence consisting of abilities from less intelligent individuals. He, operating at two levels, called Level I and therefore, conceptualised intelligence as Level II. Level I is the associative learning consisting of one similar set of abilities in which output is more or less similar to which can be used for solving any or every the input (e.g., rote learning and memory). problem in an individual’s environment. Level II, called cognitive competence, His theory of intelligence is called Uni or involves higher-order skills as they one factor theory of intelligence. This transform the input to produce an effective theory came to be disputed when output. psychologists started analysing data J.P. Guilford proposed the structure- of individuals, which was collected using of-intellect model which classifies Binet’s test. intellectual traits among three dimensions: In 1927, Charles Spearman proposed a operations, contents, and products. two-factor theory of intelligence Operations are what the respondent does. employing a statistical method called factor These include cognition, memory analysis. He showed that intelligence recording, memory retention, divergent consisted of a general factor (g-factor) and production, convergent production, and some specific factors (s-factors). The evaluation. Contents refer to the nature of g-factor includes mental operations which materials or information on which are primary and common to all intellectual operations are performed. performances. In addition to the g-factor, These include visual, auditory, symbolic he said that there are also many specific (e.g., letters, numbers), semantic (e.g., abilities. These are contained in what he words) and behavioural (e.g., information called the s-factor. Excellent singers, about people’s behaviour, attitudes, needs, architects, scientists, and athletes may be etc.). Products refer to the form in which high on g-factor, but in addition to this, information is processed by the respondent. they have specific abilities which allow Products are classified into units, classes, them to excel in their respective domains. relations, systems, transformations, and Spearman’s theory was followed by Louis implications. Since this classification Thurstone’s theory. He proposed the (Guilford, 1988) includes 6´5´6 categories, theory of primary mental abilities. It therefore, the model has 180 cells. Each cell states that intelligence consists of seven is expected to have at least one factor or primary abilities, each of which is relativelability; some cells may have more than 6 Psychology Reprint 2026-27